Monday, July 21, 2014

The toll of the two-week fighting between Israel and the Islamist Hamas group in Gaza topped 500 on Monday.
The UN Security Council has deplored the mounting violence and appealed for an immediate ceasefire.
Here are five things about the Israel-Gaza conflict.
1. History of the Gaza conflict
Israelis and Arabs have been fighting over Gaza on and off, for decades. It is part of the wider Arab-Israeli conflict.
After World War II and the Holocaust in which six million Jewish people were killed, more Jewish people wanted their own country.
They were given a large part of Palestine, which they considered their traditional home but the Arabs who already lived there and in neighbouring countries felt that was unfair and did not accept the new country.
In 1948, the two sides went to war. When it ended, Gaza was controlled by Egypt and another area, the West Bank, by Jordan. They contained thousands of Palestinians who fled what was now the new Jewish home, Israel.
But in 1967, after another war, Israel occupied these Palestinian areas and Israeli troops stayed there for years. Israelis hoped they might exchange the land they won for Arab countries recognising Israel's right to exist and an end to the fighting.
Israel finally left Gaza in 2005 but soon after, a group called Hamas won elections and took control there. Much of the world calls Hamas a terrorist organisation. It refuses to recognise Israel as a country and wants Palestinians to be able to return to their old home - and will use violence to achieve its aims.
Since then, Israel has held Gaza under a blockade, which means it controls its borders and limits who can get in and out.
2. What is Gaza and who controls it?
The Gaza Strip is an area about half the size of Singapore on the border with Egypt up against the Mediterranean Sea.
Technically part of the Palestinian Authority, it has been governed since 2007 by the militant group Hamas. With 1.8 million people living in just 139 square miles (360 sq km), Gaza is one of the most densely populated places on earth.
Hamas, which rejects the existence of Israel, recently agreed to form a unity government with the other main Palestinian political faction, Fatah. The new Palestinian Unity Government recognises the State of Israel. But the outbreak of current hostilities pitting Hamas against Israel has left the Fatah-controlled Palestinian Authority on the sidelines.
3. What sparked this latest wave of violence?
While rocket attacks from Gaza and Israeli military incursions in the West Bank are regular occurrences, last month's abduction of three Israeli teens in the West Bank have brought the tensions to a fever pitch.
When the bodies of Eyal Yifrach, Gilad Shaar and Naftali Frankel were found on June 30, Israel was grief-stricken. The Israeli government blamed Hamas, which denied responsibility but praised the abductions.
Israel carried out arrests and demolished homes of the suspects in the West Bank, and launched airstrikes against targets in Gaza that are used to lob rockets into Israel.
Palestinians stepped up rocket attacks and clashed with Israeli troops.
The mood darkened further when a Palestinian teenager was abducted and killed in Jerusalem in what police say could be a revenge killing. The news sparked clashes between protesting Palestinian youths and Israeli security forces in Jerusalem.
The attacks quickly escalated. Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad have fired rockets with a reach that Israel had not previously seen, with air raid sirens going off as far away as Jerusalem, Tel Aviv and Haifa.
According to the Israeli Defense Forces, Israel has hit more than 1,872 sites in Gaza with either air strikes or naval bombardment.
4. Who are the key players?
Hamas controls the Gaza Strip and is considered a terrorist group by Israel and the United States. But while there is no Israeli military presence inside Gaza anymore, the effective control of Gaza's sea, air and borders is under Israeli control.
The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) are the military arm of Israel and are well armed and exceptionally large given Israel's population. Most Israeli residents must go through compulsory military service and are automatically enrolled in the IDF's reserve forces.
Benjamin Netanyahu is the prime minister of Israel. After the Israeli teens were found dead, he said they were victims of "terrorists" and "human animals." When the Palestinian teen was found murdered, he telephoned the boy's father and said the murder was "abhorrent." Three Israelis have been indicted for the murder.
5. What's next?
The current conflict comes after almost two years of relative calm between Israel and the Palestinians and just months after the latest round of peace talks collapsed.
Unfortunately, there has been no sign that the conflict has reached its peak.
The Israeli military still believes that it has more of its mission to complete.
Hamas fighters may be emboldened by their ability to inflict pain on the Israeli forces, and they too may not want an immediate halt.
But the fact that the battle has moved into a heavily-populated urban area with reports in some cases of house-to-house fighting means that the civilian death toll will rise markedly.
With it will come added pressure from outside to end the operation once and for all, wrote BBC defence correspondent Jonathan Marcus.
The only way to put a stop to the regular outbreaks of violence is to start by securing a ceasefire and then looking for a long-term solution, said Martin Indyk, a diplomat with a long history of working in the region.
What a ceasefire requires above all, "is for Hamas to decide that it is in its interest to stop firing those rockets," he said.
Sources: BBC, CNN, Deutsche Welle, ABC News, CBS News
- See more at: http://www.straitstimes.com/news/world/middle-east/story/5-things-about-the-israel-gaza-conflict-20140721#sthash.yxM4Cr5O.dpuf

Sunday, July 21, 2013

http://www.whydontyoutrythis.com/2013/04/the-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html


http://www.whydontyoutrythis.com/2013/04/the-oldest-man-in-recorded-history.html

Yuen li Ching 256 years old born 1677


Inspirations Health News Truth Science Technology The Oldest Man In Recorded History?! MONDAY, APRIL 1, 2013 Li Ching - Yuen from China lived 256 years, born in 1677 in the town of Qi Jiang Xian in the Szechuan province. He was a martial artist and a tactical adviser and he died in 1933, having over 200 descendants during his life span and surviving 23 wives. How did he do it? Ching-Yuen is reported to have lived off a diet of herbs and rice wine inculding lingzhi, Goji Berries- wild ginseng, he shou wu and gotu kola. Is there proof? In a 1930 New York Times article, Professor Wu Chung-chieh of the University of Chengdu found Imperial Chinese government records from 1827, congratulating Li Ching-Yuen on his 150th birthday. Further documents later congratulate him on his 200th birthday in 1877. More info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ching-Yuen Related: Man in India who claims that he has Not Eaten Or Drunk Any Liquid in 70 Years Examined by Scientists The Hidden History Of The Human Race Real PROOF of Psychic Energy! BBC Documentary TV Dr. Bruce Lipton: The Biology of Belief - Where Mind and Matter Meet Dr. David Hamilton - How Your Mind Can Heal Your Body Sponsored From Around the Web How New iPads are Selling for Under $40 How to Get Freakishly Long Eyelashes in 7 Days Why Snoring Can Kill - and How to Stop It How to Speed Up Your PC - Tricks Manufacturers Hate How Cruise Ships Fill Their Unsold Cabins Tricks Car Insurance Agents Don't Want You to Know How to Exercise Your Brain to Make It Strong How Penny Stocks Create Millionaires Every Day Rare Discovery Helps Lower Blood Pressure Economist Caution: Prepare For "Massive Wealth Destruction" ? Popular Stories 14 Year Old Responds To Billionaire Who Claims Monsanto Is A Hero 16 Conspiracy Theories That Turned Out To Be True 3D-Printed Cast Lets Broken Arms Breathe Odor-Free Top 10 Healthy Benefits To Regular Meditation Raw Honey Garlic Lemon Shots: A Simple Recipe To Supercharge Your Immune System From Around the Web How to Speed Up Your PC - Tricks Manufacturers Hate A New Solution That Stops Snoring and Lets You Sleep How to Exercise Your Brain to Make It Strong How Cruise Ships Fill Their Unsold Cabins Rare Discovery Helps Lower Blood Pressure ? Categories: Inspirations

Thursday, January 12, 2012

Sus transport in Singapore

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from Bus Services in Singapore) The logo of the Public Transport System A typical bus stop in Singapore. New bus stop poles being installed island-wide since September 2009. Fleet of SBS Transit buses parked at the Old Boon Lay Interchange. SMRT Buses parked in one line at the Bukit Panjang Bus Interchange. Bus transport in Singapore is the most comprehensive and affordable means of public transport for the masses, with over two million rides taken per day on average on the buses of the two main public transport providers SBS Transit and SMRT Corporation. There are more than 300 bus services covering all parts of Singapore. Contents  [hide]  1 History 2 Public bus companies 3 Vehicles 3.1 SBS Transit 3.2 SMRT Buses 4 Routes 5 References 6 External links [edit]History When Singapore first gained independence in 1965, the state of the public transport system was extremely unsatisfactory. Its capacity was inadequate to cope with the population, while the buses were old and slow. Furthermore, the system was beleaguered with frequent problems such as poor management and substandard services and quality. The main bus operator was the Singapore Traction Company, plying routes in the city area. Apart from that, there were many small and individual Chinese private bus companies, each plying a small part of the rural and fringe areas of the island, with only a few routes each. Therefore a simple journey from the East to the West of the island could involve several bus transfers, and could last a few hours aboard noisy and rickety buses. As Singapore Traction Company had a 30-year monopoly and had no direct competition, its services were usually substandard, while the small Chinese bus companies also had a shortage of resources and funds. Moreover, many bus companies had labour problems. There were quite a few cases of labour unrest. In the late 1950s, the situation deteriorated. Militant bus workers, manipulated by communist-controlled unions, resorted to strikes in a demand for better work conditions and pay. These work stoppages plagued the entire bus system into chaos. A famous bus strike was the Hock Lee bus riots on May 12, 1955, where workers from the Hock Lee Amalgamated Bus Company began to go on strike. They were members of the Singapore Bus Workers' Union (SBWU) and were protesting against bad working conditions, long working hours and a low pay. Students from the Chinese Middle schools even came to join and support the strikers. The situation was so bad that in 1955, the Chinese bus companies were hit by a total of 57 strikes. In 1956, the 'Great STC Strike' lasted 146 days. The strikers crippled the country's transport system. The chaotic conditions usually left the commuters in a lurch. It was in the early seventies that government stepped in to reorganize the bus system. Many small bus companies were amalgamated into three larger bus companies, namely the Amalgamated Bus Company Ltd, Associated Bus Services Pte Ltd, and the United Bus Ltd. They were grouped into three regional sectors. The STC continued its monopoly on the central area of Singapore. Notwithstanding the reorganization, bus services still did not improve much. There were still frequent breakdowns, overcrowded buses, and irregular fare and route structures. During this time, the protectionism of the STC by the government was also removed. The STC could not cope with this new environment and closed down its operations due to large financial losses. In 1973, The three main bus companies were merged into a one single organization. The new company formed from this merger was the Singapore Bus Service (the predecessor of SBS Transit), which came into operation in November 1973. It was hoped that this would create economies of scale and ultimately improve bus services. The government mooted the idea of a second bus company in the early eighties. The idea was to provide some degree of competition to SBS. Therefore Trans-Island Bus Services Limited was formed on 31 May 1982, as the second major public bus operator. Trans-Island started operations on 3 April 1983. Mr Ong Teng Cheong, the then Minister for Communications, remarked that "Each company will act as a natural impetus to enhance the performance and efficiency of the other in the spirit of healthy competition and in the process help bring about a better level of service." In August 1994, the government announced the transfer of 17 SBS services to Trans-Island bus services. This was to help TIBS in its early years. A bus stop pole outside Suntec Convention Centre, showing SBS Transit's Trunk, Express & Citybuzz Routes (now withdrawn), and SMRT Buses' Trunk, Shortworking & NightRider Services. In 2001, Singapore bus service changed its name to SBS Transit Limited. This was to reflect its status as a multi-modal transport operator, as it had won the tender to operate the new North East Line and the Sengkang/Punggol Light Rapid Transit Lines. In late 2001, Trans-Island became a subsidiary of the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit Corporation (SMRT). Trans-Island Bus Service was renamed as SMRT Buses Ltd on 10 May 2004. This continues till today. There are plans to convert bus interchanges into being air-conditioned as opposed to the current open-air. So far, four bus interchanges have been converted into air-conditioned ones. The first of these is the Toa Payoh Bus Interchange which opened for services in 2002. The second is the Sengkang Bus Interchange which commenced passenger usage in 2003. The third is the Ang Mo Kio Bus Interchange which opened in 2007. The fourth is the Boon Lay Bus Interchange which opened in 2009. Upcoming air-conditioned bus interchanges include Choa Chu Kang, Clementi, Yishun and Serangoon. [edit]Public bus companies Company Routes Fleet Daily Trips SBS Transit 185 133 trunk 52 feeder 2,582 2.34 million SMRT Buses 78 48 trunk 14 feeder 863 661,595 Bus-Plus Services 59 [edit]Vehicles Mercedes-Benz O405G/Hispano on SMRT Buses Service 857 outside Raffles City. SMRT Buses is the sole public operator of bendy buses in Singapore. A Dennis Trident 3/Duple Metsec on SBS Transit Service 51 outside the National Library. Mercedes-Benz O405 on SBS Transit Townlink Service 268 Singapore's buses consist of single deck 12 metre long buses used by all operators, double decker and midi buses are used solely by SBS Transit and articulated (bendy) buses are used solely by SMRT Buses for the exception of two being used by SBS Transit. The 'solely' in the SBS Transit and SMRT Buses; is the same as boys and girls, they separate fashion. The two articulated buses of SBS Transit, namely SBS998Y (Volvo B10MA) and SBS999U (Mercedes-Benz O405G), have since been sold to New Zealand in March 2006. Examples of buses currently used in Singapore are: [edit]SBS Transit Current fleet Dennis Dart (Bodied by Duple Metsec) Dennis Trident 3 (Low-floor, bodied by Duple Metsec DM5000) Mercedes-Benz O530 (Citaro) (Bodied by EvoBus GmbH) Leyland Olympian 3-axles (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Scania L94UB (Demonstrator - SBS2888T. Low-entry, bodied by Volgren) Scania K230UB (Demonstrator - SBS8033D. Low-entry, bodied by Gemilang) (WAB) Scania K310UD (Demonstrator - SBS7888K. Low-entry, bodied by Gemilang) (WAB) Volvo B10BLE (Demonstrator - SBS1688K. Low-entry, bodied by Volgren) Volvo B10M-61 Mark III (Bodied by Duple Metsec) Volvo B10M-60 Mark IV (Bodied by Soon Chow & Strider Alexander) Volvo B10M-70 Mark IV "Superlong" (Demonstrator - SBS997A, bodied by Duple Metsec) Volvo B10M-60 Mark IV (Bodied by Duple Metsec DM3500) Volvo B7RLE (Demonstrator - SBS8030L. Low-entry, bodied by Soon Chow) (WAB) Volvo Olympian 2-axle (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Volvo Olympian 3-axle (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Volvo Super Olympian (Demonstrator - SBS9889U. Low-floor, bodied by Volgren & ComfortDelgro Engineering) Volvo B9TL (Demonstrator - SBS7500D. Low-entry, bodied by ComfortDelgro Engineering & Wright Eclipse Gemini 2) (WAB) Sunlong SLK6121UF14H (Low-floor, bodied by Gemilang, supplied by Sunlong) (WAB) Historical fleet Albion Viking Dennis Dominator DDA144 (Demostrator - SBS7003Y. Bodied by Duple Metsec) Renault PR100.2 (Demostrator - SBS30P. Bodied by Ansair) Guy Victory Leyland Atlantean Leyland Olympian Leyland Leopard PSU5C/2R (Demostrator - SBS6791L. Bodied by Alexander) Leyland Lynx (Demostrator - SBS3572Y. Bodied by Walter Alexander PS) Leyland National 2 (Demostrator - SBS6820L) MAN 16.240 (Demostrator - SBS81S. Bodied by PSV assembled by Soon Chow with Carrier AC) MAN 18.240 HOCL-NL (Demostrator - SBS8031J. Bodied by Gemilang) Mercedes-Benz OF1413 Mercedes-Benz OF1417 Mercedes-Benz O305 (Demostrator - SBS5500S & SBS5541Z. Bodied by Willowbrook & Alexander R) Mercedes-Benz 811D (Bodied by Asia Coach) Mercedes-Benz O405G (Bodied by Volgren) Mercedes-Benz O405 (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Nissan Diesel U21SCN (Demostrator - SBS 2452S. Bodied by Fuji Heavy Industries) Nissan Diesel U31SCN (Bodied by Fuji Heavy Industries) Scania BR112DH (Demostrator - SBS 7000E. Bodied by East Lancs) Scania N113CRB (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Volvo Ailsa B55 (Demostrator - SBS4741U. Bodied by Alexander AV) Volvo B57 (Bodied by New Zealand Motor Bodies) Volvo B10MD (Demostrator - SBS4961B) Volvo B10M (Demostrator - SBS9C. Bodied by Van Hool) Volvo B10M-61 Mark II (Bodied by Walter Alexander & Duple Metsec) Volvo B10MA-60 Mark IV (Bodied by Duple Metsec) [edit]SMRT Buses Mercedes-Benz Citaro on SMRT Buses Service 855 Current fleet DAF SB220 (Bodied by Walter Alexander) Dennis Lance (UK & UMW made, bodied by Duple Metsec) Hino HS3KRKA (Demonstrator - TIB905Y. Bodied by Volgren) Hino HS3KRKK (Bodied by Volgren) MAN NL320F (Demonstrator - SMB138Y. Bodied by MCV Evolution) (WAB) Mercedes-Benz O405 (Bodied by Hispano & Volgren) Mercedes-Benz O405G (Demonstrator - TIB838H. Bodied by Hispano) Mercedes-Benz O405G (Demonstrator - TIB1024H. Bodied by Hispano & Volgren) Mercedes-Benz OC500LE (Demostrator - SMB1H. Low-entry, Bodied by Volgren, Gemilang & Hispano) (WAB) Mercedes-Benz Citaro (O530) (Demonstrator - SMB136C. Bodied by EvoBus) (WAB) Nissan Diesel U31RCN (Bodied by Fuji Heavy Industries) Scania L113CRL (Bodied by Walter Alexander & ELBO) Zhongtong LCK6112G Hybrid (Demonstrator - SMB137A. Bodied by Zhongtong Integral Body) (WAB) Historical fleet DAF SB220LT (Bodied by Hispano) Hino HT238 Yutong ZK6126 (Demonstrator - SMB135E. Bodied by Yutong Integral Body) (WAB) [edit]Routes Main article: Bus routes in Singapore Photo of SBS7314A, A Volvo B9TL WAB in service with SBS Transit in Singapore. SBS Transit is the sole public operator of double decker buses in Singapore. Singapore has many different bus services plying through the island. These bus routes can be grouped into the following categories: Trunk: Routes that ply between towns. These are the basic forms of bus services, found almost throughout the island. Short Trip: Routes that operate short haul trips which cater to high demand sectors of an entire trunk route, such as the area near an MRT station. Feeder: Services that operate within a neighbourhood, connecting outlying areas to the town centre or bus interchange. Intra-Town (SMRT Buses) and TownLink (SBS Transit): Routes that consist of combined feeder services to provide links and improve connectivity between neighbourhoods within the same town, and with the bus interchange and MRT. Jurong Industrial Service: Routes that service the Jurong and Tuas industrial areas. Express: Routes that stop at several nominated stops and generally run on expressways for faster travel between several towns. Fast Forward: A modification of trunk routes, Fast Forward are routes which provide faster travel between places where there is higher demand, by calling at fewer stops. NightRider (SMRT Buses) and Nite Owl (SBS Transit): After-hour services on Friday, weekends and eve of public holidays. Chinatown Direct: Routes that run from suburban towns to Chinatown via the expressways. Such routes are very popular in the period before the Lunar New Year. Parks: Services that run from major parks to the nearest bus interchange. Premium: Services that run from major towns to Shenton Way, Orchard Road and Suntec City Resorts World at Sentosa: Services that run from major locations to Resorts World at Sentosa Special bus routes that were recently terminated: CityBuzz: Citybuzz had 3 special bus services that looped Marina Centre, Orchard Road, Chinatown, and Little India, and were more orientated towards sightseeing and tourists. CityShopper: Services that run from major towns to and from Orchard Road and Suntec City. Stadium Direct: Services that run from the Singapore Indoor Stadium to major towns after major concerts or events being held there. [edit]References Ilsa Sharp, (2005), SNP:Editions, The Journey - Singapore's Land Transport Story. ISBN 981-248-101-X [edit]External links SBS Transit Official Site SMRT Buses Official Site Land Transport Authority TransitLink Public Transport Council Sgwiki, with details on e.g. bus deployments [hide]v · d · e Bus stations in Singapore Interchanges Ang Mo Kio Bedok Bishan Boon Lay Bukit Batok Bukit Merah Bukit Panjang Choa Chu Kang Clementi Eunos HarbourFront Hougang Central Jurong East Pasir Ris Punggol Sembawang Sengkang Serangoon Tampines Toa Payoh Woodlands Yishun Terminals Buona Vista Changi Airport PTB 1, 2 and 3 Changi Village Ghim Moh Jurong Island Kent Ridge Lim Chu Kang Lorong 1 Geylang Marina Centre Marina South Pier New Bridge Road Queen Street Saint Michael's Shenton Way Sims Place Tuas Upper East Coast Yio Chu Kang Depots SBS Transit Ang Mo Kio Ayer Rajah Bedok North Braddell Bukit Batok Hougang Soon Lee SMRT Buses Ang Mo Kio (SMRT Buses) Kranji Woodlands Former bus stations in Singapore View page ratings Rate this page What's this? 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Sunday, January 8, 2012

History of Singapore general hospital

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from A History of Singapore General Hospital) Singapore General Hospital. Singapore General Hospital (SGH) is Singapore’s first general hospital and also its oldest and largest hospital. It is located along Outram Road, in the heart of a medical hub known as the Outram Campus (comprising several medical institutions including the Health Promotion Board and Health Sciences Authority). The hospital's rich history spans nearly two centuries and can be traced back to the British colonial era of 19th century Singapore. Contents  [hide]  1 19th century: The Origins of the General Hospital 2 Early 20th century: Official Establishment of Singapore General Hospital 3 1942- 1945: Impact of the Japanese Occupation 4 1946-1950s: Institution of the Unit System and Outpatient Services 5 1960s: Decentralization of Outpatient Services and Establishment of Emergency Unit 6 1970s: Medical Specialization 7 1980s: Expansion of Tertiary Medical Services 8 1990s: Restructuring and the Introduction of New Clinical Services and Research Infrastructure 9 2000- Present: Current Developments 10 Proposed Future Developments 11 References 12 External links [edit]19th century: The Origins of the General Hospital The origins of Singapore General Hospital can be traced back to a wooded shed erected in the cantonement for British troops located near the Singapore River in 1821, shortly after Sir Stamford Raffles’ landing in Singapore. The urgent need for medical care among European soldiers, the seafaring population and natives prompted the building of the first General Hospital at the same site. The hospital was relocated in the following year- a second General Hospital was built in the vicinity of the European soldiers’ barracks in the cantonement. It was functional until February 1827 when it collapsed due to the decay of the temporary constructional materials with which it was originally built. The hospital was subsequently rebuilt and the third General Hospital- renamed as the ‘Singapore Infirmary’- was opened in 1828. By the 1830s, however, the hospital was riddled with problems such as a failing infrastructure and a shortage of staff- the medical establishment had consisted of just one assistant surgeon and physician, and a few medical subordinates. Convict labour was enlisted to resolve the lack of nursing staff. The need for better hospital facilities propelled the proposal for the building of a fourth General Hospital. Following initial opposition from authorities, construction of the fourth General Hospital finally commenced in 1843 at Pearl’s Hill. The hospital was opened to patients in 1845. After a decade of service, the need for relocation surfaced yet again in 1856, following proposals to reorganize the land defence and fortifications of Singapore. Pearl’s Hill had been demarcated as a military zone to be fortified. Construction of a fifth General Hospital was subsequently designated at the Kandang Kerbau district and commenced in the same year. The hospital opened in 1860 and had expanded in scope to treat female patients, unlike its predecessors. Following the introduction of gynaecological treatment in 1865, wards were set up on the basis of gender and economic standing, instead of specific lines of treatment for diseases. In 1873, a cholera outbreak, intensified by the hospital’s unfavourable location on low-lying land, forced an immediate relocation of hospital premises. It was temporarily housed at Sepoy Lines. After the outbreak was contained, it was proposed that the hospital should permanently remain at Sepoy Lines on the grounds of its central location and elevated land. Subsequently, the sixth General Hospital was constructed at Sepoy Lines along Outram Road and was opened in 1882. [edit]Early 20th century: Official Establishment of Singapore General Hospital At the turn of the 20th century, overcrowding prompted the construction of a bigger General Hospital at the same site. This seventh General Hospital was officially named Singapore General Hospital and was opened on 29 March 1926 by Sir Lawrence Nunns Guillemard (the then Governor of the Straits Settlements). It was heralded as a landmark in Singapore’s medical history for igniting the systematic development of hospital services: the hospital was furnished with 800 beds and comprised three separate blocks accommodating male and female wards. More significantly, the hospital was distinguished from its predecessors by its emphasis on provision of medical care for locals (it had served mainly seafarers, the Europeans and the military in preceding decades). However, the hospital was still plagued by several constraints. Patients were still segregated on the basis of gender and economic status. Consequently, patient treatment was greatly impeded; doctors had to travel long distances to various wards scattered throughout the hospital to treat patients. Specialization of medical services was also not feasible due to the small medical establishment and high doctor-to-patient ratios. [edit]1942- 1945: Impact of the Japanese Occupation The War Memorial at SGH. The hospital’s premises were seized by Japanese forces on 18 February 1942. The General Hospital subsequently functioned as the Japanese military’s primary surgical centre in Southeast Asia until the end of the war- the upper block was used by the Japanese army; the lower by the navy. During the Japanese Occupation, the hospital faced severe water shortages after its water supply was cut. Consequently, hundreds of patients and staff- both locals and expatriates- perished and were buried in a mass grave on hospital grounds. Following the Japanese surrender and liberation of Singapore in 1945, the three main blocks of the hospital- previously known as the Upper, Middle and Lower blocks- were renamed Bowyer, Stanley and Norris blocks in memory of three doctors who were intimately involved in hospital administration and perished during the Occupation. The Occupation had severely crippled both manpower and medical supplies infrastructure- the hospital faced a dire shortage of trained doctors, nurses and paramedical personnel. The hospital also faced the daunting task of treating a severely malnourished population and curbing the spread of Malaria and other diseases that had become rampant during the Occupation. [edit]1946-1950s: Institution of the Unit System and Outpatient Services The years following the Japanese Occupation saw a surge in the demand for medical treatment as a result of Singapore’s rapid growth and the post-war baby boom. The hospital therefore shifted its focus to expanding its facilities and services, and rebuilding its manpower infrastructure. In 1947, the Unit System- widely practiced in Europe- was formally instituted in the hospital. All medical and surgical wards were divided into units, each of which was helmed by its own specialist chief. The patients of each specialist and his staff were then grouped into adjacent wards according to ailments. Under this system, patients were no longer segregated according to gender or economic status; hence treatment efficiency was improved. By the 1950s, the prolific rise in patient load had overstretched both the manpower and facilities in the hospital. The hospital subsequently addressed this constraint by introducing a system of early patient discharge coupled with an outpatient clinic service. The establishment of outpatient clinics- each specializing in a specific discipline- facilitated the treatment of a large number of patients without having to admit them directly to the hospital. Consequently, the manpower burden was alleviated slightly as fewer doctors were required to man 24-hour watches on patients. [edit]1960s: Decentralization of Outpatient Services and Establishment of Emergency Unit In the 1960s, outpatient services were decentralized in order to further lessen manpower and infrastructural strains on the hospital. Outpatient dispensaries were built in outlying areas of Singapore, closer to patients’ homes. This helped to significantly reduce the outpatient load at the hospital, allowing it to focus instead on providing emergency care. Subsequently, casualty services were reorganized into the Emergency Unit in 1964. The unit focused on providing treatment to trauma victims, especially casualties of traffic and industrial accidents. [edit]1970s: Medical Specialization By the 1970s, rapid industrialization and social progress in Singapore had fuelled the demand for specialized medical services. In 1970, a committee appointed by the government to look into medical specialization proposed that SGH should channel its resources into five specialist areas: neurosurgery, cardiothoracic surgery, paediatric surgery, nephrology and plastic and reconstructive surgery. In subsequent years, several departments and units were established to develop specialization in the aforementioned areas. Following a shift towards genetic and metabolic diseases, paediatric surgery was introduced as a subspecialty in the Department of Surgery in 1972. In the same year, the Department of Plastic and Reconstructive surgery was officially opened. The department specialized in the treatment of congenital abnormalities, facial and hand injuries and burns. 1972 also saw a major reorganization of the earlier established Emergency Unit to handle the treatment of both trauma and non-trauma cases. Two years later, the Unit was transformed into the Accident and Emergency Department which subsequently provided 24-hour support for all emergency cases. The Department of Renal Medicine was also established in 1974. Its establishment made dialysis and renal transplant services accessible to the public. In 1975, a Surgical Intensive Care Unit was set up in response to the establishment of several new surgical departments. The Unit, in conjunction with the earlier established Department of Anaesthesia, provided intensive care for patients that underwent surgery. [edit]1980s: Expansion of Tertiary Medical Services The prolific growth of specialized medical treatment in the 1970s fuelled the need for an expansion of existing medical infrastructure. Consequently, the construction of a new SGH complex was commenced in the late 1970s. Built at a cost of S$180 million, the new eight-block complex housing over 1,500 hospital beds and 300 specialists was integrated into the site of its 1926 predecessor and was officially opened by the then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew on 12 September 1981. The new hospital complex was designed to serve as a tertiary referral centre for specialized medical services at the national level. In addition, it also facilitated the introduction of several tertiary medical services. Ambulatory services for outpatient care were established to reduce reliance on infrastructure such as hospital beds, thereby cutting costs for both SGH and its patients. The new complex was also equipped with sophisticated laboratory facilities to accommodate clinical research. In 1981, the Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery which had been transferred to Tan Tock Seng Hospital was re-established in the new SGH complex. In the same year, paediatric surgery was designated as a separate department. The department introduced its first paediatric bone marrow transplant in 1983. Bolstered by advances in reconstructive microsurgery, the Department of Hand Surgery was instituted in 1985 to provide specialized treatment for hand injuries. Two additional departments- Obstetrics and Gynaecology and Neonatology- were introduced in 1986. The former galvanized an in-vitro fertilization programme while the latter provided intensive care for the newborn. [edit]1990s: Restructuring and the Introduction of New Clinical Services and Research Infrastructure The Postgraduate Medical Institute in SGH. Amid the rapid growth of medical facilities at SGH in the 1970s and 1980s, it was necessary for the hospital to ensure that its services remained affordable to the public; and at the same time maintain the long-term sustainability of its subsidies. Consequently, the hospital underwent restructuring in 1989. SGH was removed from the civil service and was corporatized as a wholly state-owned company under the Health Corporation of Singapore, a government holding company. Through restructuring, the hospital gained operational and managerial autonomy. Subsequently, the existing departments in the hospital were reorganized into three divisions- the Division of Surgery, Division of Medicine and Division of Ambulatory and Clinical Support services. To further improve patient care, hospital admission and administrative procedures were simplified; SGH was also given a physical face-life to improve its aesthetic outlook. In the same year, two new research and treatment facilities- the Centre for Assisted Reproduction and the SGH Oncology Centre- were inaugurated. In 1991, the Department of Clinical Research was opened to cultivate emerging Life Sciences research. Additionally, the Department of Oncology was established, and three new digital cardiac laboratories were built to support cardiological research. Between 1992 and 1995, four new medical centres were incorporated into SGH, namely: the Urology, Endoscopy and Diabetes centres, and the Singapore Heart Centre. In 1993, a new Department of Neurology was established. Subsequently, SGH became the first Asian hospital to successfully use virtual reality surgery to remove brain tumours. 1994 was also a milestone for SGH: it pioneered the establishment of a local Postgraduate Medical Institute (PGMI) that year. The PGMI serves as a central coordinating body providing clinical training and research education opportunities. Through the PGMI, SGH has also forged ties with premier medical institutions around the world, including Stanford University Hospital in the U.S. and the Royal Melbourne Hospital in Australia. In February 1997, the Alice Lee Institute of Advanced Nursing was established to provide training opportunities in nursing education and management for SGH nurses. By the end of the decade, two additional centres- the Centre for Obstetrics and Gynaecology and the Haematology Centre- were established to provide specialized clinical services and treatment for patients. [edit]2000- Present: Current Developments The Bowyer Block. In early 2000, a major reorganization of the public healthcare sector initiated by the government placed SGH under the management of Singapore Health Services (SingHealth). Through these managerial changes, SGH gained access to better infrastructural and professional support. The dawn of the new millennium also saw the advancement of medical procedures in SGH. In 2000, SGH carried out its first lung transplant together with personnel from the National Heart Centre and National Cancer Centre. The first minimally invasive surgical procedure for backache relief was also successfully performed in the same year. 2001 was a significant milestone for SGH: the hospital successfully separated a pair of cranially conjoined twins from Nepal in a historic 97-hour long surgery. In 2002, SGH pioneered a modified jaw advancement technique for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea in Asians. In the same year, the Postgraduate Allied Health Institute- the second such postgraduate institution in SGH- was established to provide postgraduate study and advanced clinical skills training opportunities for healthcare professionals. Two new departments- the Department of Behavioural Medicine and Department of Rheumatology & Immunology- were established the following year. SGH also commenced a liver dialysis programme in 2003 for patients with acute liver failure. Singapore was afflicted by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in March 2003. SGH, together with Tan Tock Seng Hospital, was instrumental in curbing the epidemic. Apart from establishing a SARS Taskforce to contain hospital-wide infection, the hospital also mobilized its Department of Internal Medicine as well as several laboratories in its Virology Section and Pathology Department to actively diagnose the SARS virus. The SGH Museum, located at the Bowyer Block. 2005 saw the opening of the SGH museum in the Bowyer block by President S R Nathan. The museum serves as a repository of hospital photos and documents preserved from the late 19th and 20th centuries. It also traces the evolution of medical equipment in SGH through its exhibits of various medical equipment and instruments from different segments of the hospital’s history. In 2007, construction of the Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School commenced in Outram. The campus is slated to open in 2009. Once functional, the school will integrate/ incorporate SGH’s medical facilities into its postgraduate programmes to train physician-scientists to support Singapore’s thrusts into the biomedical industry. By 2007, the hospital was also involved in several research initiatives including stem cell therapy, regenerative medicine, and neurological medicine. [edit]Proposed Future Developments It is envisioned that SGH will form the nucleus of a proposed Medical Park development in the Outram region. The park is aimed at promoting Singapore as a regional medical hub. SGH will provide the core tertiary medical services and will synergize with other institutions slated for development in the Medical Park in the areas of clinical research and training. The master plan for SGH includes a proposed new Pathology Building. A new Postgraduate Medical Institute is also slated to be built to reflect SGH’s greater overall emphasis on teaching. The current referral centres in SGH are also slated for future development to meet the needs of changing disease trends of the future. [edit]References Ho, Lai Y (Ed) (2006). "Envisioning a Destiny: Celebrating A New Era of Medical Excellence", Singapore: Singapore General Hospital. Kwa, Soon B., B. Y. Lau, V. T. Joseph, L. P. Low, P. C. Teoh, J. A. Tambyah, Bernard Soo and Frederick Ong (Eds) (1976). "Singapore General Hospital 1926- 1976", Singapore: pro-ads Ltd. Lee, Yong K (1978). "Medical History of Early Singapore", Tokyo: Southeast Asian Medical Information Center. Lim, Lawrence, N. Balachandran, C. L. Tan, S. K. Tan, C. H. Lim, L. G. Tan, S. K. Koh, Angela Ng and Kate Hia (Eds) (1996). "The First General Hospital", Singapore: Singapore General Hospital. [edit]External links Singapore General Hospital- Official Website View page ratings Rate this page What's this? Trustworthy Objective Complete Well-written I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional) Submit ratings Categories: Hospitals in Singapore

Friday, January 6, 2012

Berlin wall

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the chess opening variation, sometimes known as Berlin Wall, see Berlin Defence. View from the West Berlin side of graffiti art on the wall in 1986. The wall's infamous "death strip", on the east side of the wall, here follows the curve of the long closed Luisenstadt Canal. Map of the location of the Berlin Wall, showing checkpoints Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls,[1] which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period. The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified.[2] The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin, from where they could then travel to West Germany and other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989, the wall prevented almost all such emigration.[3] During this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the wall, with estimates of the resulting death toll varying between 100 and 200. In 1989, a radical series of political changes occurred in the Eastern Bloc, associated with the liberalization of the Eastern Bloc's authoritarian systems and the erosion of political power in the pro-Soviet governments in nearby Poland and Hungary. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, a euphoric public and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of the rest. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, which was formally concluded on 3 October 1990. Contents  [hide]  1 Background 1.1 Post-war Germany 1.2 The Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift 1.3 Emigration westward in the early 1950s 2 Erection of the inner German border 2.1 The Berlin emigration loophole 2.2 Brain drain 3 Construction begins, 1961 3.1 Immediate effects 3.2 Secondary response 4 Structure and adjacent areas 4.1 Layout and modifications 4.2 Surrounding municipalities 5 Official crossings and usage 5.1 Who could cross 5.2 Defection attempts 6 "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall." 7 The Fall 7.1 Demolition 7.2 Opposition 7.3 Celebrations 7.4 20th Anniversary Celebrations 8 Legacy 8.1 Museum 8.2 Cultural differences 8.3 Wall segments around the world 8.4 50th Anniversary commemoration 9 See also 9.1 Media relating to the wall 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links 12.1 Images and personal accounts Background Post-war Germany After the end of World War II in Europe, what remained of pre-war Germany west of the Oder-Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones (per the Potsdam Agreement), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union. The capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city's location fully within the Soviet zone.[4] Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the other occupying powers. These included the Soviets' refusal to agree to reconstruction plans making post-war Germany self-sufficient and to a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets.[5] Britain, France, the United States and the Benelux countries later met to combine the non-Soviet zones of the country into one zone for reconstruction and approve the extension of the Marshall Plan. The Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift Further information: Eastern Bloc and Berlin Blockade Eastern Bloc Annexed into SSRs[show] Satellite states[show] Annexing SSRs[show] Related organisations[show] Revolts and opposition[show] Cold War events[show] Conditions[show] Decline[show] v d e Following World War II, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin headed a union of nations on his Western border, the Eastern Bloc, that then included Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, which he wished to maintain alongside a weakened Soviet-controlled Germany.[6] As early as 1945, Stalin revealed to German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within the British occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two, and that nothing then would stand in the way of a united communist Germany within the bloc.[7] The major task of the ruling communist party in the Soviet zone was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties, which in turn would be presented as internal measures.[8] Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone.[9][10] If statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and, for persons outside public attention, punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death.[8] Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a compulsory part of school curricula, sending professors and students fleeing to the West. The East Germans created an elaborate political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance,[11] including Soviet SMERSH secret police.[9] In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin.[12] The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began a massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies.[13] The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein,[14] while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated for the international airlift to continue.[15] In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin.[16][17] The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was declared on 7 October 1949. By a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets penetrated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control.[18][19] East Germany differed from West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany), which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy ("Soziale Marktwirtschaft" in German) and a democratic parliamentary government. Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 20-year "economic miracle" ("Wirtschaftswunder"). As West Germany's economy grew and its standard of living steadily improved, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany. Emigration westward in the early 1950s Main articles: Eastern Bloc emigration and defection and Eastern Bloc After Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.[20] Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany, the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 187,000 in 1950; 165,000 in 1951; 182,000 in 1952; and 331,000 in 1953.[21][22] One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization, given the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953.[23] 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953.[24] Erection of the inner German border Further information: Inner German border and Eastern Bloc emigration and defection By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany.[25] The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states that had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural—especially where no prior border existed between East and West Germany.[26] Up until 1952, the lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places.[27] On 1 April 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions Stalin's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin [so as to stop] free movement of Western agents" in the GDR. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable". He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border—and not just any border, but a dangerous one ... The Germans will guard the line of defence with their lives."[28] Consequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected. The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted. This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR, and also a flashpoint for tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1955, the Soviets gave East Germany authority over civilian movement in Berlin, passing control to a regime not recognized in the West.[29] Initially, East Germany granted "visits" to allow its residents access to West Germany. However, following the defection of large numbers of East Germans under this regime, the new East German state legally restricted virtually all travel to the West in 1956.[27] Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately, does not always turn out in favor of the Democratic [East] Berlin."[30] The Berlin emigration loophole Further information: Eastern Bloc emigration and defection With the closing of the inner German border officially in 1952,[30] the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible then because it was administered by all four occupying powers.[27] Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West.[31] On 11 December 1957, East Germany introduced a new passport law that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany. It had the unintended result of drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60% to well over 90% by the end of 1958.[30] Those caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and subway train access still available to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective.[32] The Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape.[30] The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totalled approximately 20% of the entire East German population.[32] Brain drain Further information: Eastern Bloc emigration and defection The emigrants tended to be young and well-educated, leading to the "brain drain" feared by officials in East Germany.[20] Yuri Andropov, then the CPSU Director on Relations with Communist and Workers Parties of Socialist Countries, wrote an urgent letter on 28 August 1958, to the Central Committee about the significant 50% increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees.[33] Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material.[33] He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase."[33] By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61% of its population of working age, compared to 70.5% before the war.[32] The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals: engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers.[32] The direct cost of manpower losses to East Germany (and corresponding gain to the West) has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion, with East German party leader Walter Ulbricht later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses.[32] In addition, the drain of East Germany's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment.[34] The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative.[35] Construction begins, 1961 East German Combat Groups of the Working Class close the border on 13 August 1961 in perparation of the Berlin Wall construction. East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961 On 15 June 1961, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and GDR State Council chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference, "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one has the intention of erecting a wall!). It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context. The record of a telephone call between Nikita Khrushchev and Ulbricht on 1 August in the same year, suggests that it was Khrushchev from whom the initiative for the construction of the wall came.[36][37] However, other sources suggest that Khrushchev had initially been wary about building a wall, fearing negative Western reaction. What is beyond dispute, though, is that Ulbricht had pushed for a border closure for quite some time, arguing that East Germany's very existence was at stake.[38] Khrushchev had been emboldened by US President John F. Kennedy’s tacit indication that the US would not actively oppose this action in the Soviet sector of Berlin.[39] On Saturday, 12 August 1961, the leaders of the GDR attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin. There Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall. At midnight, the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and, by Sunday morning, 13 August, the border with West Berlin was closed. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 kilometres (97 mi) around the three western sectors, and the 43 kilometres (27 mi) that divided West and East Berlin. The barrier was built slightly inside East Berlin or East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point. Later, it was built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on 17 August. During the construction of the Wall, National People's Army (NVA) and Combat Groups of the Working Class (KdA) soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, chain fences, walls, minefields and other obstacles were installed along the length of East Germany's western border with West Germany proper. A huge no man's land was cleared to provide a clear line of fire at fleeing refugees.[40] Immediate effects With the closing of the East-West sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs. West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. In 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk proclaimed, "The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape. I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is—it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to Communist failure."[40] US President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on 26 June 1963 In a speech on 26 July 1963, US President John F. Kennedy had acknowledged[41] that the United States could only hope to defend West Berliners and West Germans; to attempt to stand up for East Germans would result only in an embarrassing downfall. Accordingly, the administration made polite protests at length via the usual channels, but without fervour. The Wall violated postwar Potsdam Agreements, which gave the United Kingdom, France and the United States a say over the administration of the whole of Berlin. A few months after the barbed wire was erected, the U.S. government informed the Soviet government that it accepted the Wall as "a fact of international life" and would not challenge it by force. From the East-Side 1968 the "Baby Wall" with flowers was the nearest point for visitors Ich bin ein Berliner (I am a Berliner) speech "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech from the Rathaus Schöneberg by John F. Kennedy, 26 June 1963. Duration 9:01. Ich bin ein Berliner (I am a Berliner) speech (audio) Audio-only version (Duration 9:22) Problems listening to these files? See media help. US and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin, but were surprised by how long the East Germans took for such a move. They considered the wall as an end to concerns about a GDR/Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin; the wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus they concluded that the possibility of a Soviet military conflict over Berlin decreased.[42] The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-fascist protective rampart" (German: "antifaschistischer Schutzwall") intended to dissuade aggression from the West.[43] Another official justification was the activities of western agents in Eastern Europe.[44] The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism, as most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East.[45] The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it. Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin. An East German SED propaganda booklet published in 1955 dramatically described the serious nature of 'flight from the republic': Both from the moral standpoint as well as in terms of the interests of the whole German nation, leaving the GDR is an act of political and moral backwardness and depravity. Those who let themselves be recruited objectively serve West German Reaction and militarism, whether they know it or not. Is it not despicable when for the sake of a few alluring job offers or other false promises about a "guaranteed future" one leaves a country in which the seed for a new and more beautiful life is sprouting, and is already showing the first fruits, for the place that favours a new war and destruction? Is it not an act of political depravity when citizens, whether young people, workers, or members of the intelligentsia, leave and betray what our people have created through common labour in our republic to offer themselves to the American or British secret services or work for the West German factory owners, Junkers, or militarists? Does not leaving the land of progress for the morass of an historically outdated social order demonstrate political backwardness and blindness? ... [W]orkers throughout Germany will demand punishment for those who today leave the German Democratic Republic, the strong bastion of the fight for peace, to serve the deadly enemy of the German people, the imperialists and militarists.[46] Secondary response This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) Kennedy appointed retired General Lucius D. Clay, who had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation in Germany during the period of the Berlin Blockade and had ordered the first measures in what became the Berlin Airlift, as his special advisor, sending him to Berlin with ambassadorial rank. Clay was immensely popular with the residents of West Berlin, and his appointment was an unambiguous sign that Kennedy would not compromise on the status of West Berlin. Clay and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday, 19 August 1961. They arrived in a city defended by three Allied brigades—one each from the UK, the US, and France (the Forces Françaises à Berlin). On 16 August, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on 19 August, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Colonel Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.[47] On Sunday morning, U.S. troops marched from West Germany through East Germany, bound for West Berlin. Lead elements—arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men, divided into five march units—left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German/East German border, US personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 kilometres (99 mi) long, and covered 177 kilometres (110 mi) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear. East German police watched from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along. The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin in front of a large crowd. At 04:00 on 21 August, Lyndon Johnson left West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin; each traveled by autobahn to demonstrate Allied rights. The creation of the wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: in spite of discontent with the wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated. The economy in the GDR began to grow. But, the wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers used it in propaganda as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after East German border guards shot and killed would-be defectors. Such fatalities were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany. Structure and adjacent areas Layout and modifications Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989) The Berlin Wall was more than 140 kilometres (87 mi) long. In June 1962, a second, parallel fence some 100 metres (110 yd) farther into East German territory was built. The houses contained between the fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated, thus establishing what later became known as the Death Strip. The Death Strip was covered with raked sand or gravel, rendering footprints easy to notice, easing the detection of trespassers and also enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task;[48] it offered no cover; and most importantly, it offered clear fields of fire for the wall guards. Through the years, the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions: Wire fence (1961) Improved wire fence (1962–1965) Concrete wall (1965–1975) Grenzmauer 75 (Border Wall 75) (1975–1989) The "fourth-generation wall", known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12.11" (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975[49] and completed about 1980,[50] it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 metres (12 ft) high and 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) wide, and cost DDM 16,155,000 or about US$3,638,000.[51] The concrete provisions added to this version of the Wall were done so to prevent escapees from driving their cars through the barricades.[52] At strategic points the wall was constructed to a somewhat weaker standard so that East German and Soviet armored vehicles could break through easily in the event of war.[53] The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. It was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, barbed wire, dogs on long lines, "beds of nails" under balconies hanging over the "death strip", over 116 watchtowers,[54] and 20 bunkers. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. The layout came to resemble the inner German border in most technical aspects, except the Berlin Wall had no landmines and no spring-guns.[48] Surrounding municipalities Besides the sector-sector boundary within Berlin itself, the wall also separated West Berlin from the present-day state of Brandenburg. The following present-day municipalities, listed in counter-clockwise direction, share a border with former West Berlin: Oberhavel : Mühlenbecker Land (partially), Glienicke/Nordbahn, Hohen Neuendorf, Hennigsdorf Havelland : Schönwalde-Glien, Falkensee, Dallgow-Döberitz Potsdam (Urban district) Potsdam-Mittelmark : Stahnsdorf, Kleinmachnow, Teltow Teltow-Fläming : Großbeeren, Blankenfelde-Mahlow Dahme-Spreewald : Schönefeld (partially) Official crossings and usage See also: Berlin border crossings There were nine border crossings between East and West Berlin, which allowed visits by West Berliners, West Germans, Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin, provided that they held the necessary permits. Those crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße, also known as Checkpoint Charlie, which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners.[55] Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin's exclaves (see Steinstücken). The famous You Are Leaving sign at a border of the American sector Travel orders to go to Berlin as used by U.S. forces in the 1980s Four autobahns connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being the Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn (Checkpoint Alpha), and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo for the Allied forces) in southwestern Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat for commercial shipping via canals and rivers. Non-German Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the S-Bahn and U-Bahn, were divided with it.[50] Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called Geisterbahnhöfe, or ghost stations) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross. Who could cross This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could in general visit East Germany. Usually this involved application of a visa at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. In the 1980s, visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1:1. It was forbidden to export East German currency from the East, but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits. Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa, which cost DM 5; West Berliners did not have to pay this. West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all. All crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (Passierscheinregelung). Similar, very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966. In 1971, with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits. East Berliners and East Germans could at first not travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being: Elderly pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1965 Visits of relatives for important family matters People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons (for example, artists, truck drivers, musicians, writers and so on.) However, each visit had to be applied for individually and approval was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travellers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (Begrüßungsgeld, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin to help alleviate this situation. Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition of visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country. Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls, purchasing a visa or being required to exchange money. Likewise, Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border, since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin, as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin, including entry into, exit from, and presence within East Berlin; the Allies held that only the Soviet Union, and not the GDR, had authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases. For this reason, elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin. Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the Military Liaison Missions accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, located in Potsdam. Allied personnel were restricted by policy when travelling by land to the following routes: Transit between West Germany and West Berlin Road: the Helmstedt-Berlin autobahn (A2) (Checkpoints Alpha and Bravo respectively). Soviet military personnel manned these checkpoints and processed Allied personnel for travel between the two points. Military personnel were required to be in uniform when traveling in this manner. Rail: Western Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces were forbidden from using commercial train service between West Germany and West Berlin, due to the fact of GDR passport and customs controls when using them. Instead, the Allied forces operated a series of official (duty) trains that traveled between their respective duty stations in West Germany and West Berlin. When transiting the GDR, the trains would follow the route between Helmstedt and Griebnitzsee, just outside of West Berlin. In addition to persons traveling on official business, authorized personnel could also use the duty trains for personal travel on a space-available basis. The trains traveled only at night, and as with transit by car, Soviet military personnel handled the processing of duty train travelers. Entry into and exit from East Berlin Checkpoint Charlie (as a pedestrian or riding in a vehicle) As with military personnel, special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR. This was intended to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin, which could jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all Berlin. Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers, not formally affiliated with the Allied forces, were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin. Regarding travel to East Berlin, such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city, in addition to Checkpoint Charlie. In these instances, such travelers, unlike Allied personnel, had to submit to East German border controls. Defection attempts Further information: Deaths at the Berlin Wall NVA soldier Conrad Schumann defecting to West Berlin during the wall's early days in 1961 During the years of the Wall, around 5,000 people successfully defected to West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the wall, or as a result of the wall's existence, has been disputed. The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt, Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum's founder, estimated the death toll to be well above 200.[56][57] A historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research (ZZF) in Potsdam has confirmed 136 deaths.[58] Prior official figures listed 98 as being killed. The East German government issued shooting orders (Schießbefehl) to border guards dealing with defectors, though such orders are not the same as "shoot to kill" orders. GDR officials denied issuing the latter. In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers, guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the wall were criminals and needed to be shot: "Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used".[59] Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line, but these ended as the wall was fortified. East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the wall to be occupied, and any building near the wall had its windows boarded and later bricked up. On 15 August 1961, Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin.[60] On 22 August 1961 Ida Siekmann was the first casualty at the Berlin Wall: she died after she jumped out of her third floor apartment at 48 Bernauer Strasse.[61] The first person to be shot and killed while trying to cross to West Berlin was Günter Litfin, a twenty-four year old tailor. He attempted to swim across the Spree Canal to freedom in West Germany on 24 August 1961, the same day that East German police had received shoot-to-kill orders to prevent anyone from escaping.[62] Another dramatic escape was carried out on April 1963 by Wolfgang Engels, a 19-year-old civilian employee of the Nationale Volksarmee. Engels stole a Soviet armored personnel carrier from a base where he was deployed and drove it right into the wall. He was fired at and seriously wounded by border guards. But a West German policeman intervened, firing his weapon at the East German border guards. The policeman removed Engels from the vehicle, which had become entangled in the barbed wire.[63] Memorial to the Victims of the Wall, with graffiti, 1982 East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods: digging long tunnels under the wall, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires, flying ultralights, and in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of defection, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and windscreen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They lay flat and kept driving forward. The East Germans then built zig-zagging roads at checkpoints. The sewer system predated the wall, and some people escaped through the sewers, in a number of cases with assistance from the Girmann student group. An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger, who landed a Zlin Z 42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an East German youth military training organization, at RAF Gatow. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by RAF airmen such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under the registration D-EWOH. If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, Westerners could not intervene for fear of triggering engaging fire from the 'Grepos', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, as in the most notorious failed attempt, that of Peter Fechter (aged 18). He was shot and bled to death, in full view of the Western media, on 17 August 1962. Fechter's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places, and provide medical care for possible “would-be escapers”.[64] The last person to be shot and killed while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on 6 February 1989. The Wall gave rise to a widespread sense of desperation and oppression in East Berlin, as expressed in the private thoughts of one resident, who confided to her diary "Our lives have lost their spirit…we can do nothing to stop them."[65] "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall." Ronald Reagan at the Berlin Wall, June 1987: "Tear down this wall!" Tear down this wall Complete speech by Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate, 12 June 1987 Problems listening to this file? See media help. Main article: Tear down this wall! In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin[66] on 12 June 1987, Ronald Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev, then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to tear down the wall as a symbol of increasing freedom in the Eastern Bloc: We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall![67] The Fall Germans standing on top of the wall in the days before it was torn down. Berlin Wall at the Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989 Juggling on the Berlin Wall on 16 November 1989 "Mauerspecht" (November 1989) After allowing for loopholes throughout the summer, Hungary effectively disabled its physical border defenses with Austria on 19 August 1989 and, in September, more than 13,000 East German tourists escaped through Hungary to Austria.[68] This set up a chain of events. The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to Budapest. These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany. The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary, but allowed those already there to return. This triggered a similar incident in neighboring Czechoslovakia. On this occasion, the East German authorities allowed them to leave, providing that they used a train which transited East Germany on the way. This was followed by mass demonstrations within East Germany itself. (See Monday demonstrations in East Germany.) The longtime leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, resigned on 18 October 1989 and was replaced by Egon Krenz a few days later. Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the wall would stand for 50 or 100 more years[69] if the conditions that had caused its construction did not change. Protest demonstrations broke out all over East Germany in September 1989. Initially, protesters were mostly people wanting to leave to the West, chanting "Wir wollen raus!" ("We want out!"). Then protestors began to chant "Wir bleiben hier", ("We're staying here!"). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "Peaceful Revolution" of late 1989.[70] The protest demonstrations grew considerably by early November. The movement neared its height on 4 November when half a million people gathered at the Alexanderplatz demonstration, a rally for change in East Berlin's large public square and transportation hub. (Henslin, 07) Meanwhile, the wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West had increased and had found its way through Hungary via Czechoslovakia (or via the West German Embassy in Prague), tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the communist Czechoslovak government. To ease the complications, the politburo led by Krenz decided on 9 November to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including West Berlin. On the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private travel. The new regulations were to take effect the next day. Günter Schabowski, the party boss in East Berlin and the spokesman for the SED Politburo, had the task of announcing this; however he had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated.[71] Shortly before a press conference on 9 November, he was handed a note announcing the changes, but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards—however, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference. One of the reporters—by most accounts, NBC's Tom Brokaw--asked when the regulations would take effect. After a few seconds' hesitation, Schabowski assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied, "As far as I know effective immediately, without delay".[38] After further questions from journalists he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings towards West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then.[72] Walking through Checkpoint Charlie, 10 November 1989 Excerpts from Schabowski's press conference were the lead story on West Germany's two main news programs that night—at 7:17 PM on ZDF's heute and at 8 PM on ARD's Tagesschau; this of course meant that the news was broadcast to nearly all of East Germany as well. Later that night, on ARD's Tagesthemen, anchorman Hans Joachim Friedrichs proclaimed, "This is a historic day. East Germany has announced that, starting immediately, its borders are open to everyone. The GDR is opening its borders ... the gates in the Berlin Wall stand open."[38][71] After hearing the broadcast, East Germans began gathering at the wall and at the six checkpoints between East and West, demanding that border guards immediately open the gates.[71] The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem. At first, they were ordered to find the "more aggressive" people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany—in effect, revoking their citizenship. However, this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through "as Schabowski said we can."[38] It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Finally, at 10:45 pm, the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking. As the Ossis swarmed through, they were greeted by Wessis waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing. Soon afterward, a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the wall, and were soon joined by East German youngsters. They danced together to celebrate their new freedom. Demolition This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2011) An East German guard talks to a Westerner through a broken seam in the wall. Late November 1989. A crane removing a section of the Berlin Wall near Brandenburg Gate on 21 December 1989 The date on which the Wall fell is considered to have been 9 November 1989 but the Wall in its entirety was not torn down immediately. Starting that evening and in the days and weeks that followed, people came to the wall with sledgehammers or otherwise hammers and chisels to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts of it in the process and creating several unofficial border crossings. These people were nicknamed "Mauerspechte" (wall woodpeckers). The East German regime announced the opening of ten new border crossings the following weekend, including some in historically significant locations (Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, Bernauer Straße). Crowds on both sides waited there for hours, cheering at the bulldozers which took parts of the Wall away to reinstate old roads. Photos and television footage of these events is sometimes mislabelled "dismantling of the Wall", even though it was merely the construction of new crossings. New border crossings continued to be opened through the middle of 1990, including the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989. West Germans curiously peer at East German border guards through a hole in the wall West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel starting 23 December. Until then, they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between 9 November and 23 December, East Germans could actually travel more freely than Westerners. Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990 Television coverage of citizens demolishing sections of the wall on the evening of 9 November and the new border crossings opened weeks later, led some foreigners to think the Wall was torn down quickly. Technically, the Wall remained guarded for some time after 9 November, though at a decreasing intensity. In the first months, the East German military even tried to repair some of the damages done by the "wall peckers". Gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorized" border crossing through the holes. On 13 June 1990, the official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military began in Bernauer Straße. On 1 July, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all de jure border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. The dismantling continued to be carried out by military units (after unification under the Bundeswehr) and lasted until November 1991. Only a few short sections and watchtowers were left standing as memorials. Short section of Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz, March 2009 The fall of the Wall was the first step toward German reunification, which was formally concluded on 3 October 1990. Opposition In some European capitals at the time there was a deep anxiety over prospects for a reunified Germany. In September 1989, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher pleaded with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev not to let the Berlin Wall fall and confided that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it.[73][74] "We do not want a united Germany. This would lead to a change to postwar borders and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security", Thatcher told Gorbachev.[73] After the fall of the Berlin Wall, French President François Mitterrand warned Thatcher that a unified Germany could make more ground than Adolf Hitler ever had and that Europe would have to bear the consequences.[75] Celebrations On 25 December 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy" (Freude) changed to "Freedom" (Freiheit) in the lyrics sung. The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States.[76] Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall just north of Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Bon Jovi, Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull, Levon Helm, Rick Danko and Van Morrison. David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom", which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall. Over the years, there has been a repeated controversial debate[77] whether 9 November would make a suitable German national holiday, often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany such as Werner Schulz.[78] Besides being the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution, 9 November is also the date of the end of the Revolution of 1848 and the date of the 1918 abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and declaration of the Weimar Republic, the first German republic. However, 9 November is also the anniversary of the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of the Nazis in 1938. Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel criticized the first euphoria, noting that "they forgot that 9 Nov. has already entered into history—51 years earlier it marked the Kristallnacht."[79] As reunification was not official and complete until 3 October, that day was finally chosen as German Unity Day. 20th Anniversary Celebrations On 9 November 2009, Berlin celebrated the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall with a "Festival of Freedom" with dignitaries from around the world in attendance for an evening celebration around the Brandenburg Gate. A high point was when over 1,000 colourfully designed foam domino tiles, each over 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, that were stacked along the former route of the wall in the city center were toppled in stages, converging in front of the Brandenburg Gate.[70] A Berlin Twitter Wall was set up to allow Twitter users to post messages commemorating the 20th anniversary. Masses of Chinese users have used it to protest the Great Firewall of China. Berlin Twitter Wall was quickly blocked by the Chinese authorities.[80][81][82] In the United States, the German Embassy coordinated a public diplomacy campaign with the motto "Freedom Without Walls", to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The campaign was focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students. Students at over 30 universities participated in "Freedom Without Walls" events in late 2009. First place winner of the Freedom Without Walls Speaking Contest Robert Cannon received a free trip to Berlin for 2010.[83] An international project called Mauerreise (Journey of the Wall) took place in various countries. Twenty symbolic wall bricks were sent from Berlin starting in May 2009. Their destination: Korea, Cyprus, Yemen and other places where everyday life is characterised by division and border experience. In these places, the bricks will become a blank canvas for artists, intellectuals and young people to tackle the 「wall」 phenomenon.[84] To commemorate the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall, Twinity reconstructed a true-to-scale section of the wall in virtual Berlin.[85] The MTV Europe Music Awards, on the 5 November, had U2 and Tokio Hotel perform songs dedicated to, and about the Berlin Wall. U2 performed at the Brandenburg Gate, and Tokio Hotel performed "World Behind My Wall". Palestinians in the town of Kalandia, West Bank pulled down parts of the Israeli West Bank barrier, in a demonstration marking the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall.[86] The International Spy Museum in Washington DC hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Rides were raffled every half hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up. The Trabant was the East German people's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse. The Allied Museum in the Dahlem district of Berlin hosted a number of events to mark the Twentieth Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall. The museum held a Special Exhibition entitled "Wall Patrol – The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961–1990" which focused on the daily patrols deployed by the Western powers to observe the situation along the Berlin Wall and the fortifications on the GDR border.[87] A sheet of "Americans in Berlin" Commemorative Cinderella stamps designed by T.H.E. Hill, the author of Voices Under Berlin, was presented to the Museum by David Guerra, Berlin veteran and webmaster of the site www.berlinbrigade.com. The stamps splendidly illustrate that even twenty years on, veterans of service in Berlin still regard their service there as one of the high points of their lives.[88] Legacy Remaining stretch of the Wall near Ostbahnhof in Friedrichshain called East Side Gallery, August 2006 Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror, August 2007 A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months in 2004 and 2005 before it was removed. A "BERLINER MAUER 1961–1989" plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the wall stood Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost everywhere. Three long sections are still standing: an 80-metre (263 ft) piece of the first (westernmost) wall at the Topography of Terror, site of the former Gestapo headquarters, half way between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz; a longer section of the second (easternmost) wall along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke, nicknamed East Side Gallery; and a third section that is partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Some other isolated fragments and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city. None still accurately represents the Wall's original appearance. They are badly damaged by souvenir seekers. Fragments of the Wall were taken and some were sold around the world. Appearing both with and without certificates of authenticity, these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops. Today, the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along the tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first" wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system. Museum 15 years after the fall, a private museum rebuilt a 200-metre (656 ft) section close to Checkpoint Charlie, although not in the location of the original wall. They temporarily erected more than 1,000 crosses in memory of those who died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005.[89] Cultural differences For many years after reunification, people in Germany talked about cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially Ossis and Wessis), sometimes described as Mauer im Kopf (The wall in the head). A September 2004 poll found that 25 percent of West Germans and 12 percent of East Germans wished that East and West should be separated again by a "Wall".[90] A poll taken in October 2009 on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the wall indicated, however, that only about a tenth of the population was still unhappy with the unification (8 percent in the East; 12 percent in the West). Although differences are still perceived between East and West, Germans make similar distinctions between North and South.[91] A 2011 poll conducted by Russia's VTsIOM, found that more than half of all Russians do not know who built the Berlin Wall. Ten percent of people surveyed thought Berlin residents built it themselves. Six percent said Western powers built it and four percent thought it was a "bilateral initiative" of the Soviet Union and the West. Fifty-eight percent said they did not know who built it, with just 24 percent correctly naming the Soviet Union and its then-communist ally East Germany.[92] Wall segments around the world Main article: List of Berlin Wall segments Not all segments of the wall were ground up as the wall was being torn down. Many segments have been given to various institutions around the world. They can be found, for instance in presidential and historical museums, lobbies of hotels and corporations, at universities and government buildings, and in public spaces around the world. 50th Anniversary commemoration On 13 August 2011, Germany marked the 50th anniversary of East Germany beginning the erection of the Berlin Wall. Chancellor Angela Merkel joined with President Christian Wulff and Berlin Mayor Klaus Wowereit at the Bernauer Straße memorial park to remember lives and liberty. Speeches extolled freedom and a minute of silence at noon honored those who died trying to flee to the West. "It is our shared responsibility to keep the memory alive and to pass it on to the coming generations as a reminder to stand up for freedom and democracy to ensure that such injustice may never happen again," entreated Mayor Wowereit. "It has been shown once again: Freedom is invincible at the end. No wall can permanently withstand the desire for freedom,” proclaimed President Wulff."[93][94][95][96] See also Brandenburg Gate Chapel of Reconciliation Checkpoint Charlie stand-off Stand-off between US and Soviet Tanks, October 1961 Dissolution of the Soviet Union, 1991 History of Solidarity List of walls Operation Gold Ostalgie Panmunjom, the Korean equivalent of the wall and the last standing front of the Cold War Paradigm shift Postmodernity Removal of Hungary's border fence The Berlin Wall (video game) The Wall – Live in Berlin, a rock opera/concert by Roger Waters Media relating to the wall Some films specifically about the Berlin Wall: The Tunnel, a NBC News Special documentary film broadcast in December 1962 The Boy and the Wall Spanish-Mexican co-production, 1965[97] The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, 1965 – Cold War classic set on both sides of The Wall, from the book by John le Carré, directed by Martin Ritt Funeral in Berlin, 1966 – Spy movie starring Michael Caine, directed by Guy Hamilton The Wicked Dreams of Paula Schultz, 1968 – Cold War spy farce about an Olympic athlete who defects. Director George Marshall Berlin Tunnel 21, 1981 – A made-for-TV movie about a former American officer leading an attempt to build a tunnel underneath The Wall as a rescue route Something To Do With The Wall, 1991 – Documentary shot just before and after the Wall came down, by Ross McElwee and Marilyn Levine The Innocent, 1993 – About the joint CIA/MI6 operation to build a tunnel under East Berlin in the 1950s. Directed by John Schlesinger The Tunnel, 2001 – Dramatization of a collaborative tunnel under the wall. Film by Roland Suso Richter Some novels specifically about the Berlin Wall: John le Carré, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, 1963 – Classic Cold War spy fiction Len Deighton, Berlin Game, 1983 – Classic Cold War spy fiction T.H.E. Hill, The Day Before the Berlin Wall: Could We Have Stopped It? – An Alternate History of Cold War Espionage, 2010 – based on a legend told in Berlin in the 1970s John Marks, The Wall, 1999 NYT Review – an American spy defects to the East just hours before the Wall falls Marcia Preston, West of the Wall (published as Trudy's Promise in North America), 2008 – Left behind in East Berlin, the heroine waits for news of her husband after he makes his escape over the Berlin Wall View the author’s website Peter Schneider, The Wall Jumper, 1984 (German: Der Mauerspringer, 1982) – the Wall plays a central role in this novel set in Berlin of the 1980s Music related to the Berlin Wall "Holidays In The Sun", a song by the English punk rock band The Sex Pistols prominently mentions the wall, specifically singer Johnny Rotten's fantasy of digging a tunnel under it. Over de muur, a 1984 song by Dutch pop band Klein Orkest, about the differences between East and West Berlin during the period of the Berlin Wall.[98] Art related to the Berlin Wall In the year 1982 the West-German artist ELSNER created about 500 artworks along the former border strip around West-Berlin as part of his work series "Border Injuries". On one of his actions he even tore down a large part of the wall,[99] installed a prepared foil of 3x2m in it and finished the painting there before the border soldiers on patrol could detect him. This performance was even recorded on video.[100] His actions are well-documented both in newspapers from that time and in recent scientific publications.[101] Notes ^ Jack Marck "Over the Wall: A Once-in-a-Lifetime Experience" American Heritage, Oct. 2006. ^ [1][dead link] ^ Monday, 20 Nov. 1989 (20 November 1989). "Freedom! – TIME". TIME